Collective nouns

Collective nouns

                                         



A collective noun can take either a singular or a plural verb. Note that collective nouns are always singular in American English.

• The committee has submitted its report.
• The committee are still discussing the matter.
• 
  

Is It Wrong to Ever Split an Infinitive?

 


An infinitive is a particular verb form which expresses the verbal idea in its simplest form. It has no marking for tense, person or mood. In English, the infinitive is the verb form which can immediately follow a modal auxiliary verb like should or must.

• I should go now.
• We will wait.

An infinitive can also follow the particle to.

• I want to go.
• We will have to wait. 

Many people have, however, gained the false impression that infinitives are forms like to write and to go. This view is mistaken and learners should realize that that to does not form part of the infinitive at all. In fact, it is possible to separate the to from the following infinitive by a phrase. For example in the sentence ‘The teacher asked the student to carefully read the lesson’, the adverb carefully separates the particle to from the following infinitive read. Similarly in the sentence ‘She decided to never touch another beer can’, the adverb never separates the particle to from the infinitive touch. Here the sequences ‘to carefully read’ and ‘to never touch’ are examples of the split infinitive. Many grammarians still feel that it is wrong to separate the particle from the following infinitive. They are of the opinion that the adverb should be used either before to after the infinitive as in the following example: The teacher asked the student to read the lesson carefully.
In some sentences, however, the intervening adverb cannot be shifted to another position without changing the meaning of the sentence.
For example consider the sentence ‘She wishes to really understand his motives’. Now try changing the position of the adverb really:
                     

• She really wishes to understand his motives.
• She wishes really to understand his motives.
• She wishes to understand really his motives.

None of these sentences means the same thing as: She wishes to really understand his motives.
The use of split infinitives in such cases has been justified by modern grammarians.

Agreement of the verb with the subject

Agreement of the verb with the subject

Singular subjects take singular verbs

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

• He is my friend. (Here the singular verb is agrees with the singular subject he.)
• We are waiting to hear from you. (Here the plural verb are agrees with the plural subject we.)

Sometimes due to what is called ‘the error of proximity’ a verb is made to agree with the nearest noun, and not its proper subject. This practice should be avoided.
Consider the examples given below:

• The quality of the apples wasn’t very good. (NOT The quality of the apples weren’t very good. Here the proper subject is the abstract noun ‘quality’ and not ‘apples’.)
• His proficiency in Indian languages is remarkable. (Here the proper subject is the singular abstract noun ‘proficiency’ and not ‘languages’.)

as well as

                             

We use singular verbs with a singular subject followed by ‘with’ or ‘as well as’.

• The manager, with his subordinates, is to be present at the venue. (NOT The manager with his subordinates are …)
• Alice, as well as her sisters, has been invited. (NOT Alice as well as her sisters have been invited.)
• Sanskrit, as well as Arabic, is taught here.

When one of the subjects joined by or or nor is plural, the verb must be plural in number, and the plural subject should be placed nearest to the verb.

• Neither the officer nor his subordinates were present at the meeting.

When the subjects joined by or or nor are of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearest noun.

• Either he or you are mistaken. (Here the verb are agrees with the nearest pronoun you.)
• Neither he nor I am interested. (Here the verb am agrees with the nearest pronoun I.)

It is better to avoid these constructions and to write:

• He is mistaken, or else you are.
• He is not interested, nor am I.

Either, neither etc.

Either, neither, each, everyone and many a must be followed by a singular verb.

• Neither of the applicants is suitable for the job.
• Many a man has succumbed to this temptation.
• Everyone of us loves riding.

Order of Words in a Sentence

Order of Words in a Sentence

To make meaningful sentences we need to arrange words in a particular order. The usual order of words in an English sentence is as follows:

Subject

In an affirmative sentence, the subject usually comes before the verb.

• She is my friend. (Subject – she, verb – is)
• It is my bag. (Subject – it, verb – is)
• The dog barked. (Subject – dog, verb – barked)

Interrogative sentences usually begin with an auxiliary verb followed by the subject.

• Is she your friend? (Auxiliary verb – is, subject – she)
• Is it your bag? (Auxiliary verb – is, subject – it)
• Did the dog bark? (Auxiliary verb – did, subject – dog)

Object

The object usually comes after the verb.

• He killed the snake. (Subject – he, verb – killed, object – snake)
• I love my mother. (Subject – I, verb – love, object – mother)

When there are two objects, the indirect object (which usually denotes a person) usually comes before the direct object (thing).

• She brought me a cup of coffee. (Indirect object – me, direct object – cup of coffee)
• I told them a story. (Indirect – them, direct – story)

Adjective

When an adjective is used attributively, it comes before the noun it qualifies.

• Few children came.
• She is a beautiful girl.
• He is a lazy boy.

When an adjective is used predicatively, it comes after the verb.

• She is beautiful.
• He is lazy.

Adverb

An adverb is usually placed close to the word it modifies.

• He is a rather lazy boy. (Here the adverb rather modifies the adjective lazy.)
• I was pleasantly surprised. (Here the adverb pleasantly modifies the verb surprised.)

Synthesis of sentences

Synthesis of sentences

Synthesis means the combination of two or more simple sentences into one new sentence – simple, compound or complex.

 English Grammar

Synthesis of sentences

Synthesis means the combination of two or more simple sentences into one new sentence – simple, compound or complex.

 Ways of combining two or more simple sentences into one simple sentence. 

By using a participle
This is possible only when the sentences have a common subject.

• I read the book. I returned it to the library.
• Having read the book I returned it to the library.
• The farmer jumped on his horse. He rode to the market.
• Jumping on his horse the farmer rode to the market.
• He opened the gate. He took the dog out for a run.
• Opening the gate he took the dog out for a run.
• Henry planted a rose. He watered it. He manured it. He was delighted to see it beginning to flower.
• Having planted a rose, and watered and manured it, Henry was delighted to see it beginning to flower.

By using the absolute construction
This is done when the sentences have different subjects.
Read the sentences given below.
The dog bit the post man. The farmer decided to shoot it.
These two sentences can be combined into one by using the absolute construction.
The dog having bitten the post man, the farmer decided to shoot it.
(‘Having bitten the postman, the farmer decided to shoot the dog’ is wrong. Because it would mean that it was the farmer who bit the postman and not the dog. )

• It was a rainy day. We had to cancel the match.
• It being a rainy day, we had to cancel the match. (NOT Being a rainy day we had to cancel the match.) 
• It was a small cot. He could not sleep on it.
• It being a small cot, he could not sleep on it.
• The president took his seat on the dais. The meeting began.
• The president having taken his seat on the dais, the meeting began.
• The storm subsided. We began our march again.
• The storm having subsided, we began our march again.
• The monsoon started. The village roads became muddy.
• The monsoon having started, the village roads became muddy.
• The examination was over. The college was closed. The students left for their homes. The campus looked deserted.
• The examination being over, the college being closed and the students having left for their homes, the campus looked deserted. 

Transformation of sentences

Transformation of sentences

Changing an exclamatory sentence into an assertive sentence

The transformation of a sentence means changing its form without altering its sense.

• What a wonderful opportunity! (exclamatory)
• It is a wonderful opportunity. (assertive)
• O that I were young again! (exclamatory)
• I wish I were young again. (assertive)
• How kind of you to help him like that! (exclamatory)
• It is very kind of you to help him like that. (assertive)
• How noble he is! (exclamatory)
• He is truly noble. (assertive)
• What a great pleasure it is! (exclamatory)
• This is indeed a great pleasure. (assertive)

Changing an interrogative sentence into an assertive sentence

• Is not wisdom better than riches? (interrogative)
• Wisdom is better than riches. (assertive)
• Why worry about what people say? (interrogative)
• It is foolish to worry about what people say. (assertive)
• Did I ever ask you to do it? (interrogative)
• I never asked you to do it. (assertive)
• Is there any sense in doing that? (interrogative)
• There is no sense in doing that. (assertive)
• What does it matter whether we win or lose? (interrogative)
• It matters little whether we win or lose. (assertive)

Changing an imperative sentence into an interrogative sentence

• Stop talking. (imperative)
• Will you stop talking? (interrogative)
• Shut the door. (imperative)
• Will you shut the door? (interrogative)
• Please, get me a glass of water. (imperative)
• Will you, please, get me a glass of water? (interrogative)
• Get out of here. (imperative)
• Will you get out of here or not? (interrogative)

The interrogative is a milder or more polite form of the imperative. However, the addition of or not (see the last example) adds a touch of threat to the command.

Verb patterns and structures

Subject + intransitive verb

Some sentences have just two words – a noun and an intransitive verb.

• Birds fly.
• Dogs bark.
• Fire burns.
• Time flies.

Subject + transitive verb + direct object

A transitive verb must have an object. The normal order of words in an English sentence is subject + verb + object.

• John likes milk.
• The principal punished the boy.
• The unruly demonstrators invaded the platform.
• The scoundrels should be given a good thrashing.
• The government should ban all military organizations.

‘John likes’ …what? Milk.
‘The principal punished’ … whom?’ The boy.
The direct object is the answer to the question whom or what.

Subject + verb + object + adverb particle

Some verbs are followed by particles (e.g. put on, take off, give away, bring up, call in). Sometimes the particle is detached from the verb and put after the object.

• John put his hat on.
• They called the doctor in.
• He threw it away.
• You must send them back. 

The particle is put after the object, when the object is a personal pronoun (e.g. him, them, me, us, it) or when it is comparatively short.
When the object is long or has to be made prominent or when it is qualified by an adjectival phrase or clause, the particle comes before the object.

• The principal gave away the prices.
• He put on an air of innocence.
• We will not throw away anything useful.
• The poor widow had to bring up all three children.
• The sailors put out the fire in the hold of the ship.
• They called in Dr Smith, a famous specialist.

Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object

This order is preferred when the indirect object is shorter than the direct object or when the direct object has to be made prominent.

• The president awarded him a gold medal.
• He told us an interesting story.
• The robber dealt the traveller a heavy blow.
• We promised our guide a handsome reward.
• The teacher wished the boys all success. 

Subject + verb + direct object + preposition + indirect object

This order is preferred when the direct object is shorter than the indirect object, or when the indirect object has to be stressed.

• He distributed sweets to all the boys in the class.
• I don’t lend books to anybody.
• She bought a present for her mother.
• She ordered a new dress for herself.
• He made coffee for all of us.
•  

English Sentences

English Sentences

A sentence is a group of words that express a complete thought. It has two main parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject includes the noun or pronoun that tells what the subject is about. The predicate includes the verb that describes what the subject is doing. Here are some examples of complete sentences.

• You stop!
• New York City is called the ‘Big Apple'.
• Alice is my friend.
• She is a doctor.
• The milk turned sour.

To be a sentence, a group of words must have a subject and a predicate. It must also express a complete thought.
Being able to recognize the subject and the verb in a sentence will help you make sure that your sentences are complete and clear. Remember that in most sentences, the subject will come before the verb. Not so with questions. In a question, the verb often comes before the subject. Here are some examples.

• Is the cat on the roof? (The subject of the sentence is ‘cat.’)
• Are you coming with us? (The subject of the sentence is ‘you.’

It can be tricky to find the subject in sentences that start with here or there. Remember that here or there never function as the subject of a sentence.
For example:

• Here is your cat. (The subject of the sentence is ‘cat.’) 

Direct speech

Direct speech

We can repeat or quote the exact words spoken. This kind of reporting is called direct speech.

• She said, “I am going.”
• “The soup is too hot!” cried little Einstein.
• He said, “I want to go home.”

Indirect (reported) speech

We can make a speaker's words or thoughts part of our sentence, using conjunctions (e.g. that) and changing pronouns, tenses and other words when necessary. This kind of reporting is called indirect speech or reported speech.
Compare:

• She said, “I might bring a friend to the party.” (Direct speech)
• She said that she might bring a friend to the party. (Indirect speech)
• Bill said, “I don’t like this party.” (Direct speech)
• Bill said that he didn’t like the party. (Indirect speech)

Rules for indirect speech

There are some grammatical differences between direct and indirect speech. These changes are mostly natural and logical, and it is not necessary to learn complicated rules about indirect speech in English.
Compare:

• John (on Saturday evening): I don’t like this party. I want to go home now.
• Peter (on Sunday morning): John said that he didn’t like the party, and he wanted to go home right away.

Dropping that

The conjunction that is often dropped, especially after common reporting verbs (e.g. say, think) in informal speech.

• She said (that) she has had enough.
• I think (that) you are probably right. 

That cannot be dropped after certain verbs (e.g. reply, telegraph, shout).

• She shouted that she was busy. (NOT She shouted she was busy.)
• I replied that I was not coming. (NOT I replied I was not coming.)

Exclamations

Exclamations

Exclamations are often constructed with how and what or with so and such. Negative question forms are also common.

Exclamations with how

Form: how + adjective/adverb + subject + verb

• How cold it is! (NOT How it is cold!)
• How beautifully she sings! 

The structure how + subject + verb is also possible.

• How you have grown!

Exclamations with what

Form: what a/an (+ adjective) + singular countable noun

• What a lovely song! (NOT What lovely song!)
• What a surprise! (NOT What surprise!)

We use what + adjective before an uncountable or plural noun.

• What lovely flowers! (NOT What a lovely flowers!)
• What fools! (NOT What a fools!)
• What beautiful weather! (NOT What a beautiful weather!)

What + object + subject + verb

• What a beautiful smile you have! (NOT What a beautiful smile have you!) 

Exclamations with so and such

Different structures are possible.
Form: so + adjective

• You are so sweet!

Form: such a/an (+ adjective) + singular countable noun

• He is such a nice boy! 

Form: such (+ adjective) + uncountable/plural noun

• They are such kind people!
• They talk such rubbish!

Direct and indirect speech

There are two main ways of reporting people’s thoughts, words, beliefs etc.

Tenses

Tenses

The word tense is from the Latin word tempus, which means time. English marks tense in verbs. The tense of a verb shows the time of an action or event.
English has three tenses: the past, the present and the future.
The present tense refers to the moment of speaking. With most English verbs the present tense is marked by the suffix –s in the third person singular but otherwise has no marking at all.
The past tense refers to a time before the moment of speaking. With most English verbs, the past tense is marked by the suffix –ed, though a number of verbs have an irregular past tense.
The future tense correlates with time later than the time of speaking.
Each of these three main tenses has four forms: the simple, the progressive, the perfect and the perfect progressive.

 personal pronouns

Active and Passive Voice

Active and Passive Voice

When we say what people and things do, we use active verb forms. When we say what happens to people and things - what is done to them - we often use passive verb forms.

• They built this house in 1960. (active)
• This house was built in 1960. (passive)
• This book will change your life. (active)
• Your life will be changed by this book. (passive) 

The object of an active verb corresponds to the subject of a passive verb.

• They built this house (object) in 1960.
• This house (subject) was built in 1960.

In most cases, the subject of an active verb is not mentioned in the corresponding passive sentence. If it does have to be mentioned, this usually happens in an expression with by.

• This house was built in 1960 by Sir John Elton. 

Prepositions

Prepositions

Prepositions are words that link a noun or a pronoun to another word in the sentence.

Here is a list of some of the most common prepositions: about, between, above, beyond, across, but, after, by, against, despite, along, down, amid, during, around, except, as, for, at, from, before, in, behind, inside, below, into, beneath, like, beside, near, of, since, off, through, on, toward, onto, under, opposite, underneath, out, until, outside, upon, over, with, past, within
                    

A noun always follows a preposition. A prepositional phrase is a preposition and its object. A prepositional phrase can be two or three words long, as these examples show: on the roof, in the door, under the bed.
However, prepositional phrases can be much longer, depending on the length of the preposition and number of words that describe the object of the preposition.

• There is a cat on the roof.
• He is fond of children.
• She sat by the fire.
• The lion and the unicorn fought for the crown.

Most English prepositions have several different functions. At the same time, different prepositions can have very similar uses.
When we use verbs after prepositions, we use -ing forms, not infinitives.

• We are thinking of visiting them. (NOT We are thinking of to visit them.)
• He insisted on being paid at once. (NOT He insisted on to be paid at once.)
• I hate the idea of getting old.
• I am not very good at cooking. 

When to is a preposition, it is followed by an -ing form.

• I look forward to seeing you soon.
• She objected to my entering her room. 

Uses

Uses

To form verb forms

Participles are used with the auxiliary verbs be and have to make progressive, perfect and passive verb forms.
                           

• She was crying. (present progressive)
• I have written a novel. (present perfect)
• We have been waiting for ages. (present perfect progressive)
• They were having dinner when we called. (past progressive)
• He had left before I called. (past perfect)
• They were forced to give up their claim. (passive)
• It was broken in the storm. (passive)

As adjectives

Participles can be used as adjectives before nouns, or after be and other copular verbs.

• A rolling stone gathers no moss.
• Barking dogs seldom bite.
• A burnt child dreads fire.
• He looked tired.
• The village appeared deserted.
• The children were excited.

Not all participles can be used as adjectives before nouns – for example, we can say a lost dog, but not a found dog. It is not possible to give clear rules. 
                                   

As adverbs

Sometimes participles are used like adverbs.

• She came running into the room.
• He ran screaming out of the room.

Clauses

Participles can combine with other words into clause-like structures.

• Driven by rain, they took shelter under a tree.
• Stricken with grief, she threw herself on the body.
• The thief admitted having stolen the money.
• Deceived by his friends, he lost all hope.

Nouns

Nouns are most often the names of people, places or things. Personal names (e.g. John and Alice) and place-names (e.g. Mumbai and Chennai) are called proper nouns; they are usually used without articles.
Nouns can be divided into several sub classes:
Proper noun (e.g. India, Italy, Alice)
Common noun (e.g. boy, girl, child, man, tree)
Collective noun (e.g. class, jury, army, team)
Abstract noun (e.g. truth, beauty, honesty, sleep)

Proper noun

A noun denoting a particular person, place or thing is called a proper noun. Proper nouns are normally written with initial capital letters, and most proper nouns do not take an article. Examples: Alice, India, John, Sydney, Mt Everest.

• Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of independent India.
• John is a clever boy.
• Alice is a journalist.

Note that proper nouns denoting historical periods and events, as well as certain others, often do take the articles.
Examples: The Stone Age, The French Revolution, The United States, The United Nations Organization

Collective noun

A noun which denotes a collection of individual persons or objects is called a collective noun.
Examples are: crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, nation, family, committee, government etc.
In British English, a collective noun may be treated either as singular (if the whole group is being thought of as a unit) or as plural (if the group is being regarded as a collection of individuals).

• The jury has announced its verdict. (The jury is regarded as a unit.)
• The jury are divided on this issue. (The jury is regarded as a group of individuals.)

In American English, a collective noun is always treated as singular, and Americans say The jury is divided on this issue.

Common noun

A common noun refers to a class of things, such as dog, pencil, boy, tree or book. It does not refer to a particular person or thing.

• Solomon was a wise king.
• Alice is a cleaver girl.
• John is a boy.

In the above examples, Solomon, Alice and John refer to particular persons. These are called proper nouns. While king, boy and girl refer to the class or kind to which these proper nouns belong. These are called common nouns.
Common nouns include what are called collective nouns and abstract nouns.
                                 

Abstract noun

An abstract noun denotes something which is not physical and cannot be touched, such as pleasure, happiness, beauty, kindness, honesty, anger and idea. Sometimes the term is extended to include nouns denoting events and actions, such as arrival and explosion.
An abstract noun can be countable or uncountable. Uncountable abstract nouns are followed by singular verbs. We do not use articles or numbers before them.

• Death (uncountable) keeps no calendar.
• Several deaths (countable) have been reported from the city. 

Infinitives

Infinitives

Infinitives are forms like (to) write and (to) read. Infinitives are generally used with the marker to. Note that this to is not a preposition; after the preposition to we use –ing forms.

• I would like to meet the manager.
• Is there anything to eat?
• The main thing is to stay calm.

Negative forms

                                          

Negative Infinitives are normally formed by putting not before the infinitive.

• I decided to invite them. (affirmative)
• I decided not to invite them. (negative )
• You were silly not to have locked the car. (NOT You were silly to not have locked the car.)

Participles

A participle is a word which is partly a verb and partly an adjective. English has two participles: the present participle and the past participle.
                    

Forms like running, singing, walking and working are called present participles. Forms like worked, broken, gone, written and walked are called past participles.